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Dyirbal
Far a bheil i 'ga bruidhinn	Queensland
Luchd-labhairt iomlan	百度 由耕地牛到致富牛，从单打独斗变为共享品牌，借品牌之力，企业携手谋发展。 8
Teaghlach-chànan	Pama–Nyungan Dyirbalach
Siostam-litreachaidh	Aibidil Laideannach
ISO 639-3	dbl

Tha Dyirbal (IPA: [?d??rb?l]; cuideachd Djirubal) na cànan thùsanach Astràilia à ear-thuath Queensland le 29 de luchd-bruidhinn mu thuaiream am measg nan Dyirbal. 'S e ball de gheug beag nan cànan Dyirbalach a th' ann san teaghlach Pama–Nyungan. Tha e ainmeil am measg luchd-cànanachais a chionn 's gu bheil iomadh rud sa chànan a tha annasach a thaobh gràmair.

Far a bheilear a' bruidhinn Dyirbal

On a chaidh gràmar Dyirbal fhoillseachadh le Robert Dixon ann an 1972, tha Dyirbal air sìor-chrìonadh agus tha i an ìmpis dol à bith a chionn 's nach eil a' ghinealach òg ga togail.

Dialects

There are many different groups speaking dialects of Dyirbal language. Researcher Robert Dixon estimates that Dyirbal had, at its peak, 10 dialects.

Dialects include:

• Dyirbal (or Jirrbal) spoken by the Dyirbal?an
• Mamu, spoken by the Wa?ibara, Dulgubara, Bagi?gabara, Dyi?ibara, and Mandubara (There are also different types of Mamu spoken by individual groups, such as Warribara Mamu, and Dulgubara Mamu)
• Giramay (Or Girramay), spoken by the Giramaygan
• Gul?ay (or Gulngay), spoken by the Malanbara
• Dyiru (or Djirru), spoken by the Dyirubagala
• Ngadyan (or Ngadjan), spoken by the Ngadyiandyi
• Walmalbarra

The speakers of these dialects largely regard their dialects as different languages. They were classified as dialects by researcher Robert Dixon, who classified them as such based on linguistic criteria and their similarities, some dialects sharing as much as 90% of their vocabularies. Since the dialects were viewed by speakers as different languages, the language had no formal name, so Dixon assigned the language the name Dyibal, naming at after Jirrbal, which was the dialect with the largest number of speakers at the time he was studying it.

Neighbouring Languages

Languages neighbouring the many Dyirbal dialects include:

• Ngaygungu
• Mbabaram
• Muluriji
• Yidiny
• Warungu
• Warrgamay
• Nyawaygi

Phonology

Dyirbal has only four places of articulation for the stop and nasals, whereas most other Australian Aboriginal languages have six. This is because Dyirbal lacks the dental/alveolar/retroflex split typically found in these languages. Like the majority of Australian languages, it does not make a distinction between voiced consonants (such as b, d, g, etc.) and voiceless consonants (the corresponding p, t, and k, etc. respectively). Like Pinyin, standard Dyirbal orthography uses voiced consonants, which seem to be preferred by speakers of most Australian languages since the sounds (which can often be semi-voiced) are closer to English semi-voiced b, d, g than aspirated p, t, k.

The Dyirbal vowel system is typical of Australia, with three vowels: /i/, /a/ and /u/, though /u/ is realised as [o] in certain environments and /a/ can be realised as [e], also depending on the environment in which the phoneme appears.Teamplaid:Elucidate Thus the actual inventory of sounds is greater than the inventory of phonemes would suggest. Stress always falls on the first syllable of a word and usually on subsequent odd-numbered syllables except the ultima, which is always unstressed. The result of this is that consecutive stressed syllables do not occur.

	Peripheral		Laminal	Apical
	Bilabial	Velar	Palatal	Alveolar	Retroflex
Plosive	p	k	c	t
Nasal	m	?	?	n
Trill				r
Approximant	w		j	l	?

Grammar

The language is best known for its system of noun classes, numbering four in total. They tend to be divided among the following semantic lines:

• I – most animate objects, men
• II – women, water, fire, violence, and exceptional animals
• III – edible fruit and vegetables
• IV – miscellaneous (includes things not classifiable in the first three)

The class usually labelled "feminine" (II) inspired the title of George Lakoff's book Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. Some linguists distinguish between such systems of classification and the gendered division of items into the categories of "feminine", "masculine" and (sometimes) "neuter" that is found in, for example, many Indo-European languages.

Dyirbal shows a split-ergative system. Sentences with a first or second person pronoun have their verb arguments marked for case in a pattern that mimics nominative–accusative languages. That is, the first or second person pronoun appears in the least marked case when it is the subject (regardless of the transitivity of the verb), and in the most marked case when it is the direct object. Thus Dyirbal is morphologically accusative in the first and second persons, but morphologically ergative elsewhere; and it is still always syntactically ergative.

Taboo

There used to be in place a highly complex taboo system in Dyirbal culture. A speaker was completely forbidden from speaking with his/her mother-in-law, child-in-law, father's sister's child or mother's brother's child, and from approaching or looking directly at these people. Speakers were forbidden from speaking with their cross-cousins of the opposite sex due to the fact that those relatives were of the section from which an individual must marry, but were too close of kin to choose as a spouse so the avoidance might have been on the grounds of indicating anyone sexually unavailable.

Furthermore, because marriage typically took place a generation above or below, the cross-cousin of the opposite sex often is a potential mother-in-law or father-in-law. In addition, when within hearing range of taboo relatives a person was required to use a specialized and complex form of the language with essentially the same phonemes and grammar, but with a lexicon that shared no words with the standard language except for four lexical items referring to grandparents on the mother and father's side.

The taboo relationship was reciprocal. Thus, an individual was not allowed to speak with one's own mother-in-law and it was equally taboo for the mother-in-law to speak to her son-in-law. This relationship also prevailed among both genders such that a daughter-in-law was forbidden to speak to directly or approach her father-in-law and vice versa. This taboo existed, but less strongly enforced, between members of the same sex such that a male individual ought to have used the respectful style of speech in the presence of his father-in-law, but the father-in-law could decide whether or not to use the everyday style of speech or the respectful style in the presence of his son-in-law.

The specialized and complex form of the language, the Dyal?uy, was used in the presence of the taboo relatives whereas a form referred to in most dialects as Guwal was used in all other circumstances. The Dyal?uy had one quarter of the amount of lexical items as the everyday language which reduced the semantic content in actual communication in the presence of a taboo relative. For example, in Dyal?uy the verb 'to ask' is [ba?arrmba-l]. In Guwal, 'to ask' is [?anba-l], 'to invite someone over' is [yumba-l], 'to invite someone to accompany one' is [bunma-l] and 'to keep asking after having already been told' is [gunji-y]. There are no correspondences to the other 3 verbs of Guwal in Dyal?uy.

To get around this limitation, Dyirbal speakers use many syntactic and semantic tricks to make do with a minimal vocabulary which reveals a lot to linguists about the semantic nature of Dyirbal. For example, Guwal makes use of lexical causatives, such as transitive bana- "break" and intransitive gaynyja- "break" (similar to English be dead/kill, lie/lay). Since Dyirbal has fewer lexemes, a morpheme -rri- is used as an intransitive derivational suffix. Thus the Dyal?guy equivalents of the two words above were transitive yuwa and intransitive yuwa-rri-.

The lexical items found in Dyal?uy were mainly derived from three sources: "borrowings from the everyday register of neighbouring dialects or languages, the creation of new [Dyal?uy] forms by phonological deformation of lexemes from the language's own everyday style, and the borrowing of terms that were already in the [Dyal?uy] style of a neighboring language or dialect".

An example of borrowing between dialects is the word for sun in the Yidin and Ngadyan dialects. In Yidin, the Guwal style word for sun is [bu?an], and this same word was also the Dyal?uy style of the word for sun in the Ngadyan dialect. It is hypothesized that children of Dyirbal tribes were expected to acquire the Dyal?uy speech style years following their acquisition of the everyday speech style from their cross cousins who would speak in Dyal?uy in their presence. By the onset of puberty, the child probably spoke Dyal?uy fluently and was able to use it in the appropriate contexts. This phenomenon, commonly called mother-in-law languages, was common in indigenous Australian languages. It existed until about 1930, when the taboo system fell out of use.

Young Dyirbal

In the 1970s, speakers of Dyirbal and Giramay dialects purchased land in the Murray Upper, with the assistance of the Australian federal government and formed a community. Within this community shift in language began to occur, and with it came the emergence of new form of Dyirbal, dubbed by researcher Annette Schmidt "Young Dyirbal" or "YD." This language stands in contrast to "Traditional Dyirbal" or "TD."

Young Dyirbal is grammatically distinct from Traditional Dyirbal, in some cases being more similar to English, such as the gradual loss of ergative inflection, as is found in Traditional Dyirbal, in favour of a style of inflection more similar to the one found in English.

References

• Dixon, Robert M. W. (1972): The Dyirbal Language of North Queensland. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-08510-6. 

External links

• Lecture notes on Dyirbal illustrating mother-in-law language
• Bibliography of Dyirbal people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
• Bibliography of Girramay people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
• Bibliography of the Gulngay people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
• Rosetta Project: Dyirbal Swadesh List